Jen Schmich covers what they are, why they matter, how to approach them, and shares some examples done by the content team at Intuit. Creating a content strategy for the design system site. However, it was formalized by Andrews in 1971. the same style is retained on all pages. Please try again. Ideally designers, content strategists, and developers would have built components to allow for the different context of varying length headers. The "Content System Artifacts" Lesson is part of the full, Content Strategy course featured in this preview video. Questions like these can come as unpleasant surprises late in the design if we havent worked with our content teams. Kristina takes questions from students. When considering the design of a whole product, a design system should also include patterns in user flow, content strategy, copy, and tone of voice. From its very landing page, the system is addressed to every interdependent group in the digital ecosystem. Ill be publishing another article shortly to guide you on that matter so stay tuned for more! We have adapted it a bit to discuss the components that come together to help you create a successful strategy and governance. Definition: A design system is a complete set of standards intended to manage design at scale using reusable components and patterns. Say your business goals include increasing brand awareness. Define Design Principles 5. An effective design system is the foundation of a consistent and user-friendly product. Surprisingly, despite its importance, copywriting is often forgotten when it comes to designing and documenting components. Thus, a good system design strategy is key for enabling optimal product development. Our work is changing fast. With this drastic expansion comes a dire need for organizations to streamline design work. This content strategy primer began as an in-person bootcamp. This allows you to create a scalable and consistent visual system for UI development. That's why there's no one Right Answer when it comes to content strategy because there's no One Business Model or One Road to Success. Oops! The basic concept of COPE is that content producers are able to create content in one system and distribute it across multiple platforms and destinations. Ensure simplicity and effective design. While the lack of a sponsor wont be a show-stopper, sponsors can secure money and resources, while also conveying the strategic importance of a design system to the rest of the organization. Teams should default to using the design system's components to help create new product work. The main objective of structured design is to minimize the complexity and increase the modularity of a program. Design systems, when implemented well, can provide a lot of benefits to a design team: Design (and development) work can be created and replicated quickly and at scale. Heres another goal to aim for: Beelines Voice and Tone page contains precise and concise guidance and lots and lots of real-world examples, along with guidelines for imagery as well. If there was one greatest example to look at it would be Uniform! Its been revamped and is now available online with new material, extra resources, and more examples from the Intuit content teams. What is content strategy? In an increasingly cross-disciplinary world, its high time we gave content strategists a seat at the table, alongside designers and developers. They also include content guidelines for each component, which helps understand what content to use for each specific context. A design system is a library of reusable components and guidelines that people within a company can combine into interfaces and interactions. A design system is a collection of reusable functional elements-components and patterns-guided by clear standards that product teams use to create a consistent experience across a range of products. A design system is a living guide that evolves as the company/products/markets mature and change. The usability of an ERP system is fundamental to the success of that system. A design system is a documented catalog of components and styles used within a product, including how and why each should be implemented. Content strategy is bigger, more all-encompassing, more personalized to your specific business. Kara Pernice: You must have javascript and cookies enabled in order to display videos. With a robust design system, product teams can create . Make it cross-disciplinary. Make it official. A design system is only as effective as the team that manages it. For the solutions of the software that need to be developed from the ground level, top-down design best suits the purpose. Jen also finds leadership lessons watching RuPaul. This accessibility strategy outlines the current principles and work needed to improve the accessibility of the GOV.UK Design System. Make it visible. . Free One-Page Design Strategy Template is a perfect template for small product teams or corporates to create a short or long term plan or strategy for their future products. Not only are there millions of applications and billions of websites (with more created each year), but each of those apps and websites might have hundreds or thousands of pages (or screens). This is where content strategy skills become very important: we have to show our users, through our guidelines, that we've made these decisions based on lots of research, iteration, and testing, and that we're ensuring that we're meeting accessibility requirementsand then teach them how these decisions make things in the design system work. Resources. 2. How can we learn from each others respective disciplines and practices to create a natural workflow for managing the evolution of interfaces? Whether created or adapted, design systems require continuous maintenance and oversight to ensure they dont become outdated, obsolete, or overcrowded with redundant entries or submissions. Plain Language in Practice: Writing for the Web, Write Plainly: An Update on Plain Writing Principles and the New Law, Plain Language: The Act, What It Means, What You Need to Do. Overall the Content Strategy is written in detail and very easy to scan or read in-depth. Analyze Your Current Design Process 2. Start by building a catalogue of all the reusable components in your product. The NSW Design System can be used by any department, even if you're not using digital.nsw component kits. I browsed hundreds of design systems, seeing so many missed opportunities but also great ideas and incredible examples, so I rounded up the best ones to give you ideas on how you can nudge teams, promote good copywriting, and overall put the right words in front of your audiences! I have sometimes used the words interchangeably, and I think we need to clarify exactly what were talking about when we say components and patterns. OK, so we have our components, but how do we manage those components over time? As designers, we put this into practice by collecting components in sticker sheets files in whatever design tool we happened to use. It's in forms, copy, images, videos, stories, metadata. Create Component/Pattern Library 6. Last, for a proof of concept or an initial prototype which is likely to change, creating a full-fledged design system is probably not going to generate a desirable ROI in the near term. We work with organisations, big and small, to transform their content and help them succeed. Content Heuristic (an example) by Ahava Leibtag. Instead of thinking of who owns each deliverable, its important to think of who contributes to each and how those different contributions come together to define the final product. In our design 80% is the content itself. Structured design also helps in describing the functional aspects of the system. Content Strategy Wants YOU to Define What It Means For Your Business Component-driven user interfaces refers to the practice of building user interfaces . Along with the examples are very practical tips that are almost like a quality checklist to hunt bad copy with advice like Cut the adverbs or Look for that'. To finish off this list I picked a good example of using real-world content to display examples of your components. Subscribe to the weekly newsletter to get notified about future articles. One of the more well-known examples of this was NPR's use of the COPE (Create Once, Publish Everywhere) method in 2009. Content experts can . A section for the brand, for marketing and the products itself, apart from guidelines for other aspects like the logos, colours, illustrations etc. The best case scenario is that a team comes to the library, finds the component they need and finds that it fulfills all their requirements. 1. Not to mention, accessibility is hard and design systems are in the unique position to champion it as a fundamental standard for design, development and content strategy. Watch my Design Systems Are a Content Strategy presentation from Design & Content conference in July 2019 in Vancouver. The building blocks of a design system are components and, ideally, patterns, but oftentimes people confuse the two. When Michael isn't staring at various screens, you can find him somewhere in Washington, D.C., driving his children to ballet, soccer, gymnastics, karate, and music classes. We can then take small components and make bigger ones. If youre a writer or content designer and want to kick your work up a notch, start here. This kind of guideline is pretty rare yet is incredibly powerful in fine-tuning your voice at scale, for every detail of your digital products! As UI design has evolved over the years, the scale and speed at which UI screens must be created has also increased. Working with content strategists during product development only makes the product model stronger. A design strategy guides how design teams work to meet business objectives through design. Content Strategy for the Web, Second Edition, The Content Strategy Toolkit: Methods, Guidelines, and Templates for Getting Content Right, New Thinking: Brain Traffics Content Strategy Quad, Tips for writers getting into content strategy, ROT: The Low-Hanging Fruit of Content Analysis, A Comprehensive Guide to Content Gap Analysis, Competitive Analysis: Understanding the Market Context, A/B Testing: Test Your Own Hypotheses & Prepare to be Wrong, Data Sets You Free Analytics for Content Strategy, User Test Content Before You Start Design. Step 1. dashboard, BI reports, and various content assets) on any device. Content design also involves making sure content can be easily found on a site with over 400,000 content items. Define your design principles. Designing Connected Content by Mike Atherton and Carrie HaneMetadata Basics for Web Content by Michael AndrewsIA lenses: Helpful perspectives for content strategists by Dan BrownWhy Taxonomies by PoolParty (Semantic Web Company)The beauty of content architecture by Jennifer Schmich. His design systems and content strategy work encompasses brands such as eBay, Disney, HPE Software, Kaiser Permanente, and Yellowpages.com. example@yourdomain.com, GitHubs Kyle Diagle says successful retros start with trust, Zipper's Duretti Hirpa says designers and engineers have more shared values than you may realize, Googles Meghan Schofield on honing your design communication skills, More from Nathan on how Patterns Components, collaboration early and often with our engineering. Though it may be tempting to establish these from the outset, keep in mind that a design system should not be thought of as a portfolio of work, but rather as a functional toolkit or resource for designers and developers to work more quickly. 5 More from Deliveroo Design Ensuring that you have useful and usable content, that is well structured, and easily found is vital to improving the user experience of a website. It makes you stop and wonder, "what is a content strategy exactly?" I was a bit surprised to notice that the components dont use real-world content though I guess everyone including the big players out there still has room for improvement! We inadvertently created a design system for the design system in Figma, documenting the problem each component solved, the behavior, and any rules associated with it, both visual and content. And when I think of content strategy, I think of Kristina Halvorson. If you implement the following ERP design best practices, your company's everyday operations can attain a new level of ease, speed, and efficiency. As customizations and adjustments to the design system increase, the cost savings you may have gained from using the existing design system will diminish, and, in the long run, you may be better off creating your own design system anyway. By doing this, they are defining so much more than just the voice and tone of content being written into the product UI. Part of strategy work is figuring out how to be strategic. Libraries allow designers to create their components once and distribute them to multiple files. The ultimate purpose of going to the trouble of implementing a design system is to help the business learn and grow. Facilitates Learning With Innovative Approaches. Drag & drop. For many (and I count myself among this camp) content strategy (CS) represents a vital next step in the evolution of what we do and how we provide value. That used to be a manual process that mostly meant recreating your files . Developing content strategy techniques for defining and designing interactive content systems. In Topic 6, youll learn about systems thinking and how to see your content through a different lens. In general, content lifecycles include the following: Several of the deliverables related to each of those phases overlap with the deliverables of other fields, includinginformation architecture,user research,project management,web analytics. The Content Strategy Quad uses four elements divided into two parts: Content design: solving user problems through content and UX design strategies. Subscribe to our Alertbox E-Mail Newsletter: The latest articles about interface usability, website design, and UX research from the Nielsen Norman Group. Ideally, the team should also include a part-time researcher, part-time architect, and content writer, if these roles are explicitly determined in your organization. Youve done an audit and inventory, whats next? Thats three characters you are giving away! A design system is a set of standards that allow for the reusing of a collection of components. The content types: The various configurations of content that are distinct enough to be unique types in the system. External links may not function and information on the site may be out of date. Here's what you'd learn in this lesson: Kristina lists the artifacts and deliverables associated with content and system designs. Must be valid email. Your design system most likely lives on a site that serves as the go-to reference for anyone working on your products. Ensure That All Teams Use the Shared Language 10. It is necessary for the interfaces, design, data, and modules to satisfy the system requirements. Given the continuous and iterative nature of . Your design principles are the foundation of your design system: they are the values that guide you as you create new products, features, and functionality, and they interact to create your unique look and feel. The benefit, after all, is the replicability of design, which is in the future. External Validity in UX-Study Design, Proximity: Gestalt Principle for User Interface Design, Getting Started with Journey Mapping: 27 Tips from Practitioners, 3 Types of Roadmaps in UX and Product Design, Personas: Turn User Data Into User-Centered Design, Intranet Portals: UX Design Experience from Real-Life Projects, Operationalizing CX: Organizational Strategies for Delivering Superior Omnichannel Experiences, How Inclusive Design Expands Business Value. In Topic 4, youll learn how to test your strategy and get buy-in from stakeholders. System design is important for defining the product and its architecture. Its an important part of content strategy and an invisible force that has a huge impact on your content. What is an example of a component? . . The design school assumes strategy to an interplay between the bifurcation of the firm and its environment. Content strategists were the first to use and understand the term governance: the long-term management of content. Establish a Governance Strategy 8. They say, As a practice, content strategy helps to define, prioritize, integrate, systematize, and measure content.. We had to design components that would work in Safari on the new iPhone while still supporting older, smaller Android viewports. Mailchimp is one of those brands in the B2B space that manages to be professional while having a lot of personality. We're a content design practice. Mandatory elements. Customize everything in the content strategy template to match your brand guidelines. While all of these guidelines are vital to a design system governance, Im going to focus on making it adaptable and cross-disciplinary. Step 1: Product teams use the design system to help design and build new work. 1 These components can be interconnected and reorganized to build new systems, and each of these components should reflect your brand's values and character. In simpler language, a content management system is a tool that helps you build a website without needing to write all the code from scratch (or even know how . I hope all these good examples have helped you figure out opportunities to improve your design system along with good examples to steal from! Pattern libraries are often thought of as less robust compared to component libraries, but they can be as thorough or as high-level as needed. Building our practice. Each piece of content should: Content Strategy and UX: A Modern Love Story, Creating a User-Centered Approach in Government. When poorly implemented and maintained, design systems can become unwieldly collections of components and code; but, when implemented well, they can educate team members, streamline work, and enable designers to tackle complex UX problems. Shouldnt our content guidelines pair with the components that will serve as the vehicle for that content? The components are UI building blocks, providing a consistent approach to UI and UX designers and engineers. Component libraries specify individual UI elements, while pattern libraries feature collections of UI-element groupings or layouts. A design strategy that involves challenging the way that things are done including the fundamental assumptions of an industry. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Make it approachable. Content Audits and Inventories by Paula LandContent Heuristic (an example) by Ahava LeibtagROT: The Low-Hanging Fruit of Content Analysis by Rick AllenSituation Analysis by Kristina HalvorsonContent Inventory and Auditing from Nielsen Norman Group. It doesnt look like much but it helps to figure out whats what, how things work and nudges designers and developers towards consistent use of the tools handed to them. Summary:A design system is a set of standards to manage design at scale by reducing redundancy while creating a shared language and visual consistency across different pages and channels. Inventories and audits are the first place(s) to start with any content strategy project. Be sure you know what your organization needs before you embark on design system endeavors and evaluate the tradeoffs. First, what is the content of a design system? In fact, pattern libraries and style guides are both pieces of the design . System architecture design is a process developed by ESRI to promote successful GIS implementations. Design systems are created and used in order to: 1 This includes patterns, colors, text styles, icons, and even grid systems. What kind of Design System showcase would be complete without a mention of Atlassians? Polaris is built by Shopify but its audience is much larger than just its own teams: the guidelines and tools are also geared towards independent shops and developers making their own plugins for the platform. Take the time to write down behavior and rationale. The first inception I saw of designers using the COPE method was when we designed UI using Photoshop and in the early days of Sketch, pre-Sketch 47. Product scaling and strategy development. What are Design Systems? Get Unlimited Access Now. Libraries have changed the way design teams work together and ensure the modularity and portability of design content. The main factors to consider when creating a design system are the scale and replicability of your projects, as well as the resources and time available. Its time to take advantage of similar opportunities to improve process by collaborating with our content folks and building them into our systems as well. Lastly, consider securing an executive sponsor (from leadership ranks) to orchestrate design-system efforts. Good design strategies and techniques offer the necessary roadmap to dealing with the . Brain Traffic defines content strategy as "guiding the creation, delivery, and governance of useful, usable content." Its the essence of guide: a list of simple principles to apply over and over but its done so in a very casual way, despite being targeted at government agencies with examples and is easy to follow. Everyone thinks of content strategy differently, so I decided to look to an expert for a proper definition. Because not every team has a dedicated content strategist, guidelines empower designers to take a first pass that can then be reviewed by their content partners before it goes out the door. Brain Traffic has created the Content Strategy Quad to help describe the content-oriented and people-oriented components you need to know. For every component in their pattern library they use real-world copy in their examples as in their Form Input examples along with copywriting guidelines and examples as in their Action Bar components page. A right Instructional Design strategy facilitates the incorporation of practice exercises, interactive elements, simulations, stories, case studies, etc., to facilitate self-paced as well as result-oriented learning. Design systems are a collection of reusable components with clearly defined use standards that teams can assemble to build websites and applications. Our goal was to let authors create content and reuse it wherever it was relevant. While many pages of this kind can feel like a drag to go through this actually looks like something youd bookmark and go through every time a new sentence gets written to quickly ensure its high quality and on-brand, and thats exactly what you should aim for when writing a content style guide! The size of this team can vary, given that design systems themselves can take on different sizes and levels of customization, but, at a minimum, the team should include 1 interaction designer, 1 visual designer, and 1 developer, each meant to help write interaction-design guidelines, create visual examples, and provide code snippets and implementation specifications for each element, respectively. Investment in a custom design system will be worth it if the organization has particular needs that cannot be met by open-source design systems. It is adaptable to new and different ways of representing the product. Add your (or your client's) brand fonts and colors. Design Systems are a Content Strategy Written by Design Systems are a Content Strategy August 6, 2019 We're no longer designing with static assets in a vacuum, and passing the baton for the next person to continue the sprint. Material design system allows you to directly download design component source files for the most popular design software (like Sketch and Figma). How we can help Design your content Develop a strategy for your organisation Train your team in content design Coach future leaders Hire freelance content designers And the user will thank you for it. This one is built like a handy checklist that you can browse through every time you write something new. I say yes. April 11, 2021. This role will lead a small, centralized content management team (1 FTE/2-3 contractors) that will ensure the DAM (digital asset management -source system) has the best process & governance in . IA lenses: Helpful perspectives for content strategists, Black, Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC), cloud, cloud-based, cloud-based computing, cloud computing, Customer Support, TurboTax Help Team, help team, day care, day-care facility, family day care, e-file, e-pay, e-signature, e-payments, e-service, Employer Identification Number (EIN), Employer ID Number (EIN), Individual Taxpayer Identification Number (ITIN), Quantity on Hand, quantity on hand, on-hand quantity, QuickBooks Live Community, QuickBooks Community, save time, timesaver (n.), time-saving (adj. While design systems are often confused with style guides and pattern libraries, a design system is more strategic and high-reaching. Heres an example from the Tuts+ blog and as youd expect from a company making money from writing content theyve thought about it quite a lot! In Topic 7, we continue our chat from Topic 6 and use systems to unravel the mystery behind content architecture. There are three main things to consider: The assembly model: The way content creators will put individual content items together to make webpages, campaigns, documents, or other content products. Add charts, graphs, images, and videos to customize the content strategy template and make it your own. These concepts, design decisions or rules, created around the core components are used . There's so much information out there about how to build a content strategy. ). Of course along with multiple examples to figure out how best to put it. (IMO, please dont use an ellipsis! Resize. When it comes to content and copywriting, once again it shines, especially with this unique table that helps you figure out which kind of content pattern youre most likely to use with which component. Image credit. It reiterates that your strategy helps you to identify what already exists, what should be created and, more importantly, why it should be created. As the third arch of an exhaustive Content Strategy, Brand Guidelines includes everything you need to know about writing and formatting content: capitalization, typography, abbreviations, and so on. Depending on what your user needs are, you may need to: . She wrote one of the first books on the subject, organizes Confab: the Content Strategy Conference, and she runs Brain Traffic, a leading content strategy agency. Therese Fessenden is a Senior User Experience Specialist with Nielsen Norman Group andhost of the NN/g UX Podcast. Design systems, when implemented well, can provide a lot of benefits to a design team: There are some potential hurdles and limitations which may prevent a design team from using a design system: There are two important parts to a design system: Design repositories can take many forms, but they often contain a style guide, a component library, and a pattern library. Atlassian's Design System. Inuits Content Design has pretty much everything you could look for in a writing styleguide but one thing that very few others have is actual Content Patterns. Creating these libraries takes significant time and resources. From design thinking to systems thinking by Valerie ChanalA Systems Story (Systems Thinking) by BEE Environmental CommunicationTools for systems thinkers by Leyla AcarogluMaintaining Design Systems by Brad Frost. How is content strategy like running a bakery? (It will, still, need more time than if you continue design as usual, however, because you will have to either replace or update some UI elements and agree upon a standard). A successful content strategy will attract your target audience at every stage of the funnel and keep them engaged even after a purchase. Jen Schmich covers what they are, why they matter, how to approach them, and shares some examples done by the content team at Intuit. Transcript from the "Content & Systems Design" Lesson [00:00:00] >> So here is a larger framework for content strategy beyond activities, this sort of divides things up a little bit. If you were to join Hudl and needed to re-use a component in design or in code, every possible opportunity to show you what good copy would look like is covered: the examples, the relevant guidelines with specific examples, and the whole writing guidelines. How to Build a Design System in 10 Steps Steps: 1. Without an effort to standardize early, you'll end up making decisions about how copy should appear each time you implement a component. Creating an inventory of UI components will reveal inconsistencies in your design language and pave the way for a design system. Design systems are made of many components, patterns, styles, and guidelines, which can help operationalize and optimize your design efforts. Structure engineering; Process design . Forbes recently featured her in the Future of Work Now series. Want to learn more? Creative teams refer to this strategy throughout the design process, ensuring that each creative asset or concept actually makes sense for the project. Content strategy focuses on the planning, creation, delivery, and governance of content. Content strategy can help. Overall, the goal of your content creation strategy is to bring your company measurable results. We establish a governance strategy! And for what?) Almost everything is covered including obscure things like whether the plural of JPEG should be JPEGs or JPEGs This showcase isnt about how to create good navigation in design systems but the use of very large Next buttons at the end of each page encourages the reader to keep reading while keeping the pages fairly short and dedicated to a single point of attention. Erin Scime identifies that there are five stages in the lifecycle. Jen Schmich is a content strategist known for building new things from scratch and scatter to solve big problems, whether thats a team, platform, body of content, or voice of a brand. Your design system most likely lives on a site that serves as the go-to reference for anyone working on your products. Before Intuit, she worked on content for Hotwire, American Airlines, TripWatcher, Bank of America, E*TRADE, Blue Shield, JanSport, Gap, and Microsoft. The design system's content must serve multiple audiences with different needs. Thats it for now, if you have more good examples to share with me please put a link in the comments! Thus, using an existing design system isthe lowest-cost approach and requires the least time to implement. Copyright 1998-2022 Nielsen Norman Group, All Rights Reserved. Now you know about content strategywhats next? Build content management systems (CMS), not web publishing tools (WPT). "A design system is a complete set of standards intended to manage design at scale using reusable components and patterns." For many of us, the first thing that springs to mind when thinking of design systems is specs for color, typography, spacing and grids. The primary goals of this strategy are to inform decision-making and enhance the success of accessibility-related activities within the GOV.UK Design System team. Or do you cut off the copy and insert an ellipsis? Design strategy is the combination of profitability, corporate strategy, and meeting user needs. Content strategy focuses on the planning, creation, delivery, and governance of content. Content and Information Architecture Specification. Make it last. Content Strategy for the Web, Second Edition by Kristina Halvorson and Melissa Rach, The Content Strategy Toolkit: Methods, Guidelines, and Templates for Getting Content Right by Meghan Casey, New Thinking: Brain Traffics Content Strategy Quad by Kristina Halvorson, Tips for writers getting into content strategy by Jennifer Schmich. We are working on large, cross-functional teams of designers, developers, UX writers, researchers, and accessibility consultants. Choose principles that are concrete, that reflect your . Design System,Design Process,DesignOps,Design Operations,Strategy,Branding, 10 Usability Heuristics for User Interface Design, Empathy Mapping: The First Step in Design Thinking, When to Use Which User-Experience Research Methods, Between-Subjects vs. Within-Subjects Study Design, Internal vs. Designers have come to recognize the importance of collaboration early and often with our engineering teams, and we have built systems around that process. Apple Human Interface Guidelines Apple Human Interface Guidelines In Topic 5, we start to move away from the what of content strategy to talk more about the how of thinking like a content strategist. If nobody in your team is really versed in copywriting, this is really something to steal and adjust to your own needs when you need to diverge from it but a lot really is suited to most websites and applications really! One of the trickiest components Ive seen is the header/subheader component. What does governance look like for designers in design systems? Lets dive in! A visual design system is built out of the core components of typography, layout, shape or form, and colour. A/B Testing: Test Your Own Hypotheses & Prepare to be Wrong by Stuart FrisbyData Sets You Free Analytics for Content Strategy by Jonathan ColmanUser Test Content Before You Start Design by Amy Grace WellsTesting your content: Whats the best approach? The subject matter of this talk revolved around the importance of content strategy in UX design, and how content strategists can combine their efforts with designers to produce awesome products. The design school of the strategy was initiated by Ansoff in 1965. Design systems need these 10 guidelines in order to exist, thrive, and evolve. Monthly hand-picked discoveries and stories of thriving in a new world of design. When all the definitions are combined together, it turns out to be a complete system. To build great products, we need to run the race together, even if were each responsible for different parts of the process. Design systems are best when the company foresees years of future, replicable design work. If we are structured in a cross-disciplinary way, cant we just combine our design system with our content design system? The Hierarchy Chart is another good example of this: you dont need to define that something needs to be a name and something else needs to be a role when you can simply write names and roles while conveying how they should be cased and what it looks like with real data and possibly edge cases! 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