Thus, to determine if the rocket will completely break free from the Earth's grasp, we set the two equations equal to one another and solve for v: This result is called the escape velocity. A Type Ia supernova has a characteristic light curve. Supernovae are divided into two basic physical types: However, these types of supernovae were originally classified based on the existence of hydrogen spectral lines: Type Ia spectra do not show hydrogen lines, while Type II spectra do. At Niagara Falls, if 505 kg of water fall a distance of 50.0 m, what is the increase in the internal energy of the water at the bottom of the falls? But last year an international team of researchers found an even more . While type Ia are the only supernovae known to occur in elliptical galaxies, they are observed to occur in all stellar environments, including spiral galaxies like our own. blue stragglers, and type Ia supernovae. It is the strongest of all the forces, but it only acts over extremely small distances before it becomes too weak to matter. Unlike the light curve you saw with GK-Per, a supernova light curve is not periodic since the explosion only occurs once. There is one more empirical classification of supernovae called Type Ia. We have discovered that the death of a massive star is not the only way to make a supernova. When a star's core collapses, an enormous blast wave is created with the energy of about 1028 mega-tons. The second type of supernova can happen in systems where two stars orbit one another, a binary star. They are then supported by electron pressure because of their intense density. Binary stars are two stars that orbit the same point. It can emit more energy in a few seconds than our sun will radiate in its . By looking at these objects, scientists discovered that dark energy is propelling cosmic expansion. What is a Type Ia Supernova explosion? Jupiter and Saturn, despite being considerably farther from us than the inner terrestrial planets, are very bright in our sky. Type Ia caused when a white dwarf star accumulates too much mass from its companion in a binary star system; and 2. Type Ia are also known as thermonuclear supernovae. What is the immovable object in a supernova explosion? A mammoth explosion causes the white dwarf to die. Type Ia supernovae explode when the mass of the white dwarf exceeds the Chandresekhar Limit of about In fact, it was this pipeline that revealed the first-ever strongly lensed Type Ia supernova earlier this year. Skip navigation and go straight to page content. It starts with a stellar remnant called a white dwarf. After the great collapse of the core corporation where millions of electrons were employees, conditions in the once envied Micro-Estates deteriorated. Nuclear fusion stops at iron in the core of the star, and the iron ash core collapses under its own gravity. For decades, Type Ia supernovae have been exceptional distance markers because they are extraordinarily bright and similar in brightness no matter where they sit in the cosmos. A supernova happens where there is a change in the core, or center, of a star. A typical supernova reaches its maximum brightness about 20 days after explosion. When the Chandrasekhar limit is achieved, the white dwarf becomes a neutron star. They obliterate themselves in an enormous blast - the cosmic explosion - that, as seen from Earth, is brilliant and great. This implosion can usually be brought to a halt by neutrons, the only things in nature that can stop such a gravitational collapse. Astronomers can use this information to trigger ground- and space-based telescopes to follow up and catch this light, essentially allowing them to observe a supernova seconds after it goes off. These results are the basis of their new paper in the Astrophysical Journal. The synthesis of the heavy elements is thought to occur in supernovae, that being the only mechanism which presents itself to explain the observed abundances of heavy elements. Another bombshell came in 1998 when two teams of astronomers proved that cosmic expansion is actually speeding up due to a mysterious property of space called dark energy. How does mass determine the main-sequence lifetime of a star? Why does a telescope need to be in space to observe far-ultraviolet wavelengths? Weiss. A supernova is the name given to the cataclysmic explosion of a massive star at the end of its life. Then a research team used the Hubble Space Telescope to make an extremely precise measurement of the local cosmic expansion rate. When the Chandrasekhar limit is achieved, the white dwarf becomes a neutron star. Boneless meat generally contains four servings per pound. Advances in high-performance computing are finally allowing us to understand the explosive death of stars, and this study shows that such models are needed to figure out new ways to measure dark energy.. I came to Berkeley Lab 21 years ago to work on supernova radiative-transfer modeling and now for the first time weve used these theoretical models to prove that we can do cosmology better, says Nugent. Electrons from all around were forced to move into the estates when their suburban lifestyle became untenable. The defining characteristic of a Type I supernova is a lack of hydrogen (vertical teal lines near maximum light as shown in the figure below at 6563) in their spectra, whereas Type II supernovae do show spectral lines of hydrogen. In the beginning the electrons didn't mind moving into the Micro-Estates, since it was at first spacious and quite posh. It starts with a stellar remnant called a white dwarf. Looking at this discrepancy between our modern classification, which is based on a true difference in how supernovae explode, and the historical classification, which is based on early observations, one can see how classifications in science can change over time as we better understand the natural world. How do protons ever fuse together in the presence of the electromagnetic force? Heavier elements require higher temperatures to fuse. As with the Type Ic, the Type Ia do not show hydrogen or helium, but they do have remarkably strong silicon absorption lines, and also show iron. In a white dwarf, electrons are packed in so tightly that they physically cannot get any closer to one another. In general this observational classification agrees with the physical classification outlined above, because massive stars have atmospheres that are made of mostly hydrogen, while white dwarf stars are bare. Maxima is equivalent to 10 billion luminosities. As discussed in the previous chapter, the Sun will never get hot enough to fuse carbon. It can take years to get a time delay measurement with quasars, but this work shows we can do it for supernovae in months. A different type of supernova -- a Type Ia supernova-- can happen if the circumstances are right.You see, the reason that the heaviest-mass stars become a Type II supernova is because the atoms in . Copyright 1998 - 2022 SciTechDaily. Type Ia supernovae occur a white dwarf accretes a material from the companion in a binary system. The other star is often a low-mass star, like our Sun, or can be a red giant . This discovery provided the first evidence of what is now the reigning model of the universe: Lambda-CDM, which says that the cosmos is approximately 70 percent dark energy, 25 percent dark matter and 5 percent normal matter (everything weve ever observed). . (Note: The density of uranium is $18.95 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{cm}^3$.). Even neutrons sometimes fail depending on the mass of the star's core. We want to take that data and ask what do we know about this part of the sky, whats happened there before, and is this something were interested in for cosmology?. If the main-sequence turnoff of a star cluster occurs near the very top of the main sequence, then the cluster is. . NOVA: A white dwarf star pulls matter off of a companion red giant star until a powerful nuclear fusion explosion occurs on the dwarf's surface. For a Type Ia supernova, the energy comes from the runaway fusion of carbon and oxygen in the core of a white dwarf. A Type Ia supernova results when a white dwarf is in a binary pair and the companion star is dumping material onto it. Supernovae are one of the most energetic explosions in nature, equivalent to the power in a 1028 megaton bomb (i.e., a few octillion nuclear warheads). A white dwarf is the remnant of a sun-like star at the end of its life, a body of about 1 solar mass, mainly composed of carbon and oxygen. The matter is compressed into an earth-sized object with a diameter of between 11000 and 28000 km. Astrophysicists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) and the Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation at the University of Portsmouth in the UK believe that strongly lensed Type Ia supernovae are the key to answering this question. Type Ib and Type Ic are characterized by the presence or absence of a helium line around 5876 (vertical purple . When viewed through a telescope, Uranus and Neptune are distinctly bluish green in color. When the Sun runs out of fuel in its core, the core will be. What is the source of this radiation? Electron degeneracy pressure stops the core collapse in a low-mass star, but the self-gravity of high-mass stars is large enough to overcome this, and the electrons slam into protons to form neutrons. Recall that the force of gravity between two objects is given by this equation, where m1 and m2 are the masses, and r is the distance between them: F=Gm1m2r2F=Gm1m2r2. All weather and wind on Earth are a result of convection in the. When they occur within the Milky Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye observers as "new stars" where none seemingly existed before. . When enough gas builts up on the surface of the white dwarf it triggers an explosion. What happens during this process? document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); SciTechDaily: Home of the best science and technology news since 1998. supernova Share Improve this question Follow edited Jan 21, 2020 at 19:48 astrosnapper Later it was realised that there were in fact three quite distinct Type I supernovae, now labelled Type Ia, Type Ib and Type Ic. There is a particle produced in the Sun's nuclear reactions that we can use to directly study what is happening in the interior. Supernova 1987A, which is shown at the top of the page, is close enough to continuously observe as it changes over time, thus greatly expanding astronomers' understanding of this fascinating phenomenon. . This provides an overall outward force, similar to the white dwarf's thermal pressure but much stronger, called electron degeneracy pressure, which does not depend on the temperature of the material. Thus, an isolated white dwarf may continue to just placidly burn like a dying ember, but what will happen if, like a majority of stars in our galaxy, it is part of a binary star system? What happened during the Carrington CME in 1859? Although many supernovae have been seen in nearby galaxies, supernova explosions are relatively rare events in our own galaxy, happening once a century or so on average. And in a new Astrophysical Journal paper, they describe how to control microlensing, a physical effect that many scientists believed would be a major source of uncertainty facing these new cosmic probes. How many different values of $m_{\ell}$ are possible when the principal quantum number is $n=5$ . But evidence shows that type Ia supernovae originate from some binary star systems that contain at least one white dwarf - the small, hot core remnant of a Sun-like star. Compare the cost of boneless chicken with boneless beef and boneless pork. Dr. Melissa Graham Describes The Different Types Of Supernovae. Why are Type 1a supernovae so valuable to astronomers? Type Ia These result from some binary star systems in which a carbon-oxygen white dwarf is accreting matter from a companion. Since they always occur in the same way, type Ia supernovae are used as standard candles to measure large distances. A microstate is single discrete environment an electron can exist in, defined by several quantum mechanical properties (quantum numbers), and is a unique realization of an energy that a single electron can have. Now the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, which is 300,000 km/sec. In the proton-proton chain, four hydrogen nuclei are converted to a helium nucleus. Overcrowding began to run rampant, and the electrons degenerated into survival mode. The energy from . The once dying star will begin to undergo fusion again, but this time the star cannot expand because it is bound as tightly as possible, and this newly kindled fusion creates more energy than that which holds the star together gravitationally. In some situations a white dwarf will be close enough to its companion star that matter will transfer from the companion onto the white dwarf star in a process called accretion. This happens when at least one of those stars is an Earth-sized white dwarf. Universe expands forever. Light curves and spectra from Type Ia supernovae are remarkably homogeneous, especially when compared to the other types and sub-types of supernovae. When telescopes were pointed at this position, Neptune was seen. To understand why these stars best explain the homogeneities in Type Ia supernovae, we must first look more closely at the conditions inside of a white dwarf. This is quite special to core collapse supernovae, which really take the cake for neutrino and antineutrino production. So if the star could somehow acquire even more mass than 1.4 solar masses, we could get further fireworks. If the star's iron core is massive enough, it will collapse and become a supernova. However, given the vastness of space and the long times between supernovae, astronomers . Wiki User. With three lensed quasars cosmic beacons emanating from massive black holes in the centers of galaxies collaborators and I measured the expansion rate to 3.8 percent precision. So researchers can subtract the unwanted effects of microlensing by working with colors instead of light curves. A Type Ia supernova (read: "type one-A") is a type of supernova that occurs in binary systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a white dwarf.The other star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.. Physically, carbon-oxygen white dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1.44 solar masses (M ). Ever since the CMB result came out and confirmed the accelerating universe and the existence of dark matter, cosmologists have been trying to make better and better measurements of the cosmological parameters, shrink the error bars, says Peter Nugent, an astrophysicist in Berkeley Labs Computational Cosmology Center (C3) and co-author on the paper. This does not happen spontaneously on Earth because the process requires, If we were to take a snapshot of where the photons are inside the Sun, and which direction they are traveling, we would find that. The article refers to the white dwarfs in the study as "hot, young, white dwarfs." The surface temperature is the average for the entire planet in units of Kelvin (subtract 273 from that number to convert it into units of Celsius). The ozone layer protects life on Earth from, Uranus and Neptune are different from Jupiter and Saturn in that Uranus and Neptune. The core of the star is left with increased temperature and pressure. Explanation: Both types of supernova are caused by a star's core collapsing under gravity. A nova occurs when the white dwarf, which is the dense core of a once-normal star, "steals" gas from its nearby companion star. It was relatively easy for the electrons to keep well away from each other and maintain social norms. As part of the LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration, Nugent and Goldstein hope that they can run some of this data through a novel supernova-detection pipeline, based at NERSC. For more than a decade, Nugents Real-Time Transient Detection pipeline running at NERSC has been using machine learning algorithms to scour observations collected by the Palomar Transient Factor (PTF) and then the Intermediate Palomar Transient Factory (iPTF) searching every night for transient objects that change in brightness or position by comparing the new observations with all of the data collected from previous nights. While it is true that most stars in our galaxy are about the same size as our sun and will end their lives enigmatically as burnt cinders, this does not necessarily spell the end of every low mass star's evolution. Only the explosion happens when they exceed that limit, that's why the luminosity of these explosions are nearly constant. Using Newton's laws, astronomers were able to calculate exactly where they would expect this still-undiscovered planet to be. The image here shows a white dwarf orbiting closely enough around a giant or supergiant star to accrete mass from its companion's outer layers. We know this because. This can happen in very close binary star systems. Type I supernovae can be divided into three subgroupsIa, Ib, and Icon the basis of their spectra. All type Is do not have hydrogen lines. may explode as a type Ia supernova via a process known as carbon detonation; SN 1006 is thought to be a famous example. Light curves are used to subdivide the Type II supernovae based upon how their brightness changes with time (e.g. supernova. Suppose an abnormally large amount of hydrogen suddenly burned in the core of the Sun. Neutrinos are weakly interacting particles, and they have almost no mass and no charge. (What kind of companion star is best suited to produce Type Ia supernovae is hotly debated.) The first type of supernova happens in binary star systems. Because the explosion was so nearby, astronomers were able to detect. The maximum mass of a white dwarf is about 1.4 times that of our sun, and is called the Chandrasekhar Limit. Type Ib have strong helium emission lines and Type Ic do not. Universe collapses back into itself, resulting in another big bang. The force of a magnetic field on a stationary charge is. Theres going to be a flood of information every night from LSST. Type I supernova is further divided into Type Ia and Type Ib based on the spectra it emits. D. It has a high temperature. Which of the following best explains why regular water escapes the Martian atmosphere faster than heavy water? When a star that is not large enough to. This type of explosion does not take place when the core of a massive star collapses. These explosions occur in binary systems wherein a white dwarf takes on so much mass from its partner that it cannot support itself against gravity, shutters, and is entirely destroyed in the resultant explosion. In 1987, a supernova called 1987A was visible in a . Its escape velocity is low. When the star has approached to 1% of the limit, nuclear reactions occur that is not regulated by this kind of white dwarf unlike in other stars. It can even outshine entire galaxies. (This author must admit though that the exact conditions for this spark that ignites the event is poorly understood, but a quite active and thriving field of study in astrophysics.). SNe Ia (plural) are highly homogeneous with respect to peak absolute magnitude as . The last nearby supernova explosion occurred in 1680, It was thought to be just a normal star at the time, but it caused a discrepancy in the observer's star catalogue, which historians finally resolved 300 years later, after the supernova remnant (Cassiopeia A) was discovered and its age estimated. Because of this, the limit is never achieved. These are the elements that make up stars, planets and everything on Earth, including our bodies. Although this measurement was first proposed in the 1960s, it has never been made because only two strongly lensed supernovae have been discovered to date, neither of which were amenable to time delay measurements, says Danny Goldstein, a UC Berkeley graduate student and lead author on the new Astrophysical Journal paper. So the farther out we look, the further back in time we see. The most likely culprit for Uranus's misbehaving orbit was the gravitational influence of another planet. Because these supernovae are formed by white dwarfs that explode when they reach a uniform accreted mass, the supernova peak luminosity is thought to be very consistent. A type Ia (pronounced "one-A") supernova is generated through an entirely different process. Within minutes after an interesting event is discovered, machines at NERSC then trigger telescopes around the globe to collect follow-up observations. Now, the possibility exists of an interaction between the white dwarf and its companion star which orbit each other in a stable gravitationally bound configuration (like the earth and the sun). Theoretical models (dashed black lines) seek to account for the differences, for example why faint supernovae fade quickly and bright supernovae fade . Type Ia supernovae do produce many neutrinos but nowhere near as many neutrinos and not in such a short period of time. Current evidence suggests that the double degenerate picture is the most likely mechanism for Type Ia supernovae; however this does not rule out the possibility that Ia supernovae can explode with the mechanism explained in the single degenerate model (at least some of the time anyway). When the core is more massive (Mcore > ~ 5 solar masses), nothing in the known universe is able to stop the core collapse, so the core completely falls into itself, creating a black hole, an object so dense that even light cannot escape its gravitational grasp. Consider what would happen if during the core collapse, the central core became so dense (i.e., the radius became very small while its mass stays the same) that something would have to travel faster than light to escape. What Causes a Supernova? Type Ia supernovae are much rarer, happening roughly once every 500 years in the Milky Way. Well, fair enough on the grounds that anyway, the passing of gigantic . Visit the AstroTour "Atmospheres: Formation and Escape" on how planets gain and lose atmospheres. Where do those isotopes go? What did you discover? They are basically classified according to their luminosities and spectral lines. A type Ia (pronounced "one-A") supernova is generated through an entirely different process. The core of the star becomes unstable and within seconds, the temperature peaks to billions of degrees, causing its particles to gain enough energy to dismantle the star resulting into a Type Ia supernova. White dwarfs are the end of most of stars. How does type ia supernova occur? 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We believe that all of the Type II supernova result from the collapse of a massive star's core that leave behind a compact stellar remnant in the form of a neutron star or black hole. The layers in a high-mass star occur in order of, Very young star clusters have main-sequence turnoffs, Iron fusion cannot support a star because iron. This produces tons of energy, so the center gets very hot. 1. Uranus's orbit did not appear to behave according to Newton's laws of motion and gravity. Then choose the statement that corresponds to the biggest factor that resulted in Mars having a thinner atmosphere than Earth and Venus. Given the incredible amounts of energy in a supernova explosion - as much as the sun creates during its entire lifetime - another erroneous doomsday theory is that such an explosion could happen in 2012 and harm life on Earth. One reason that Type Ia supernovae have been the target of a lot of research is that they are very bright, and that brightness can be accurately calibrated. "We can use them as mile markers,". As these stars burn the fuel in their cores, they produce heat. These events occur when the gravitational field of a massive object like a galaxy bends and refocuses passing light from a Type Ia event behind it. After running a number of computationally intensive simulations of supernova light at the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC), a Department of Energy Office of Science User Facility located at Berkeley Lab, Goldstein and Nugent suspect that theyll be able to find about 1,000 of these strongly lensed Type Ia supernovae in data collected by the upcoming Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) about 20 times more than previous expectations. Supernovae occur in stars with at least 8 solar masses. As we noted before in section 3.2 of the course wiki, a white dwarf is supported against gravity by electron degeneracy pressure. Types II and Ib/c caused when a massive star collapses at the end of its fusion sequence. If it is a type Ia, it will reach the same peak luminosity as other type Ia's. Compare that peak luminosity with the apparent brightness of the supernova at maximum to determine the distance. Type Ia spectra do not show hydrogen lines, while Type II spectra do. In chemistry, a catalyst is a reaction helper. Because of this, the limit is never achieved. Once the core has gained so much mass that it cannot withstand its own weight, the core implodes. Which of the following would be observed first? One occurs in our galaxy every few hundred years, so there is no guarantee you will ever see one in our galaxy in your lifetime. If we experience a year that is much hotter than the previous year, this means that Earth is going through a global warming trend, where the temperature will now continually increase each year. When the Sun runs out of hydrogen in its core, it will become larger and more luminous because, Abe Mizrahi, Edward E. Prather, Gina Brissenden, Jeff P. Adams, Jeffrey O. Bennett, Mark Voit, Megan O. Donahue, Nicholas O. Schneider. But evidence shows that type Ia supernovae originate from some binary star systems that contain at least one white dwarf - the small, hot core remnant of a Sun-like star. A thermonuclear runaway of the entire star. Before 1680, the two most recent supernova explosions were observed by the great astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler in 1572 and 1604 respectively. According to Newton's law of gravity, the energy it takes to completely separate two things is given by: where G is the Gravitational constant, M is the mass of Earth, m is the mass of the rocket and r is the distance between them (the radius of Earth). In addition to identifying these events, the NERSC simulations also helped them prove that strongly lensed Type Ia supernovae can be very accurate cosmological probes. Supernovae are classified as Type I or Type II depending upon the shape of their light curves and the nature of their spectra. Type II supernovae, also known as core-collapse supernovae, are explosions of massive stars (M>8 M ). These homogeneities were the first indication that there seems to be a unique process or set of conditions that lead to Type Ia supernovae. After stars run out of hydrogen in their cores, they leave the main sequence, collapse, and eventually get hot enough to fuse the helium in their cores into carbon. Why does Mercury have so little gas in its atmosphere? The spectra of a Type Ia supernova contain a distinct silicon absorption line around 6150 (vertical orange line as seen in the figure) ; this line is unique among Type I supernovae and so defines the subgroup-a of the Type I supernovae. On the other hand, Type Ia supernovae occur because of accretion onto a white dwarf and the explosion occurs when the mass of the white dwarf exceeds the Chandrasekhar mass (beyond which electron degeneracy pressure can no longer support the . The light curves among the different Type I supernovae are much more homogeneous than the light curves among Type II supernovae. In this case, the temperature has gone down, but the luminosity has gone up. Which particle carried away the other positive charge? This gravitational lensing causes the supernovas light to appear brighter and sometimes in multiple locations, if the light rays travel different paths around the massive object. Deep in the interiors of the giant planets, water is still a liquid even though the temperatures are tens of thousands of degrees above the boiling point of water. Beyond this mass, electron degeneracy pressure would not be able to prevent the star from collapsing to a smaller size. Because these elements cannot be created in ordinary stellar nuclear fusion, supernovae are the only natural source of them in the universe. Once these undesirable effects are subtracted, scientists will be able to easily match the light curves and make accurate cosmological measurements. Since type 1a supernovae always result from the collapse of a. When this happens temperatures and pressures increase until the point where new fusion reactions start. Over the past 800,000 years, ice-core data indicate which of the following are correlated? The shape of their light curves (the luminosity of the supernovae as a function of time) can be used to measure their maximum luminosity. To understand the phenomenon of core collapse better, consider an analogy to a rocket escaping Earth's gravity. Here we see a picture taken before (right) and after (left) the explosion, which clearly shows the progenitor (Sanduleak -69 o 202) of the supernova. The first neutrino detector (Homestake, shown in this image) consisted of a 100,000 gallon tank of a chlorine-containing liquid, built 1,500 meters underground to block out particles other than neutrinos that might affect the results. Why do the outer layers fall onto the core? In the figure, the spectral signatures are seen as absorption lines (a dip in brightness from the continuum at a wavelength that corresponds to a specific electronic transition in a specific element). What makes the semi-heavy water molecule more massive than a regular water molecule? A Type Ia supernova is caused by the transfer of matter onto a white dwarf. This oldest and most distant supernova brings us information from an era when stars and galaxies were closer together and expansion was still slowing due to gravity. . Type Ia Supernovae occur when a white dwarf (or merging pair of white dwarfs) undergoes a runaway nuclear reaction and produces a brilliant stellar explosion. But they also are transient events. Type II supernovae are associated with the core collapse of a massive star together with a shock-driven expansion of a luminous shell which leaves behind a rapidly rotating neutron star or, if the core has mass of >2-3 solar masses, a black hole. In the story this last piece of ground that an electron has is its micro-estate. When a star that is not large enough to. A humongous stellar explosion, a supernova, may be brighter than an entire galaxy for a brief time.It may be silent, but it sure is bright! However, if the original star was so massive that its strong stellar wind had already blown off the hydrogen from its atmosphere by the time of the explosion, then it too will not show hydrogen spectral lines. Email address is optional. . Keep up with the latest scitech news via email or social media. For the Earth, the escape velocity is 11 km/sec. What does this imply? The discoveries of dark energy and cosmic acceleration add urgency to. Supernovae (which is the plural form of supernova) become very bright and cause an enormous burst of radiation that can outshine an entire galaxy before disappearing. How does the solar minimum that occurred around 2008 compare to those in the previous solar cycles? Why might it be difficult to drop a probe into the Great Red Spot? 2013-03-26 01:30:30. B. In 1987, there was a supernova explosion in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a companion galaxy to the Milky Way. The error bars are now so small that we should be able to say this and this agree, so the results presented in 2016 introduced a big tension in cosmology. 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